Psychological Theories Behind Gamification

Intrinsic motivation occurs when individuals engage in activities for the inherent satisfaction and joy derived from the activity itself, rather than for external rewards. This type of motivation is driven by personal interest, curiosity, or the desire for self-improvement. For example, consider someone who enjoys painting. They spend hours on their artwork not because they expect to sell it or receive praise, but because they find the process itself rewarding. The act of creating, experimenting with colors, and expressing their emotions through art provides them with a sense of fulfillment and joy. This exemplifies intrinsic motivation.

People who are intrinsically motivated tend to immerse themselves deeply in their activities, paying close attention to details and exploring various aspects and possibilities. This deep engagement often leads to higher levels of creativity and a better understanding of the task at hand.^[1]

Extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards or the desire to avoid punishment. It occurs when a person engages in an activity to earn a reward or recognition that is not inherently linked to the activity itself. The motivation comes from outside the individual rather than from within. For instance, imagine a student who studies hard not because they enjoy the subject, but because they want to earn high grades and receive praise from their parents and teachers. The motivation here is the external reward (good grades and praise), not the learning process itself.

Extrinsic motivation is effective in prompting people to complete tasks they might not find intrinsically rewarding. However, relying solely on extrinsic motivators can sometimes lead to a lack of deeper engagement and satisfaction. Balancing extrinsic and intrinsic motivation can lead to more sustainable and fulfilling outcomes.

One way to enhance motivation in gamified learning experience is by examining John Keller's ARCS model, widely known in instructional design and e-learning. This model emphasizes four key factors: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction, each crucial in creating engaging and effective learning experiences.

Attention refers to capturing users' interest. This can be achieved through:

• Perceptual arousal: Using relatable examples, surprise elements, or conflicts to draw attention.
• Inquiry arousal: Stimulating curiosity with questions, problems to solve, or hands-on activities.
• Variability: Keeping users engaged by periodically changing the delivery method.

Relevance is about making the material relevant to users. It can be done by:

• Goal orientation: Explaining the importance of the goal and its future benefits.
• Matching motives: Aligning instructional goals with users' motives, such as achievement, risk-taking, power, or affiliation.
• Familiarity: Relating new knowledge to what users already know.
• Modeling: Demonstrating the results of learning the new information.

Continuing with John Keller's ARCS model, Confidence and Satisfaction are crucial in ensuring learners are motivated and engaged, particularly in gamified learning environments.

Confidence is about building users’ belief. It involves:

• Clear expectations: Clearly stating learning requirements and expectations at the start, much like tutorial levels in games.
• Small successes: Creating small milestones for users to achieve, building on each success.
• Challenging experiences: Providing varied and increasingly challenging tasks.
• Control: Allowing users to feel in control of their success through feedback and personal reinforcement.

Satisfaction is about ensuring learners feel that the learning process is valuable. It can be done through:

• Application opportunities: Letting users apply their new skills in real or simulated environment.
• Positive reinforcement: Encouraging and reinforcing new learning throughout the process, akin to in-game rewards and achievements.
• Equity: Maintaining consistent standards and measures of success to ensure fairness.

In the 1980s, Thomas Malone explored what makes games enjoyable and motivational, identifying three key elements: challenge, fantasy, and curiosity. These elements are also essential in gamification, where game-like elements are used to enhance learning and engagement.

• Challenge: A challenge involves goals with uncertain outcomes, creating an engaging environment through variable difficulty levels, hidden information, and randomness.
• Fantasy: Fantasy engages learners by evoking mental images of things not present to the senses. In gamified learning, for example, turning a history lesson into an interactive adventure where students explore ancient civilizations.
• Curiosity: Curiosity is stimulated by providing an environment with optimal informational complexity. Sensory curiosity involves changes in stimuli like light and sound, while cognitive curiosity arises when users see their knowledge as incomplete.

Mark Lepper from Stanford University developed principles to boost intrinsic motivation in learning, which are especially useful in gamification. These principles include control, challenge, curiosity, and contextualization.

• Control: Allow learners to control their learning activities, such as deciding when to start and stop.
• Challenge: Provide continuous challenges with goals of uncertain outcomes and timely feedback.
• Curiosity: Stimulate learners' curiosity by highlighting gaps in their knowledge. Use content that naturally interests them.
• Contextualization: Use realistic or fantasy contexts to show the practical use of learning.

Distributed practice, also known as spaced practice, is a learning technique where study efforts are spread out over multiple short sessions rather than crammed into one long period. In the context of gamification, distributed practice can be integrated into learning platforms and apps to enhance user engagement and retention.

The benefits of distributed practice in gamification include:

• Reduced fatigue: Shorter, spaced sessions prevent the fatigue associated with long, intense study periods.
• Enhanced retention: Spacing out learning sessions allows the brain to consolidate information, making it easier to recall later.
• Increased engagement: Regular interaction with the material keeps users engaged and motivated. For example, earning points or badges for completing daily tasks encourage users to return regularly, sustaining their interest over time.
• Better long-term results: Studies have shown that spaced practice leads to better retention even years after the initial learning period.^[2]

Scaffolding is an educational concept based on Lev Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). ZPD refers to the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance. Scaffolding provides the structured support needed to bridge this gap, helping learners master new skills progressively.

In gamification, scaffolding is evident when games are designed with levels of increasing difficulty. Early levels offer simple challenges and guidance, while later levels require more advanced skills, building on what the player has already learned.

Episodic memory refers to the information stored in a person’s long-term memory about specific events and experiences, tied to particular times and places. For example, a surprise birthday party at a sibling’s apartment is an instance of episodic memory.

These memories are vivid and personal because they are associated with meaningful events and locations. They are often recalled through connections with specific times or places, making them easily accessible and memorable.

In gamification, creating episodic memories can significantly enhance the learning experience. For instance, the language learning app Duolingo uses episodic memory principles by placing users in immersive scenarios where they practice language skills. Users might find themselves in a virtual café, ordering food in the language they are learning. This method ties the learning content to a specific, memorable context, making it easier to recall.

Cognitive apprenticeship is based on the theory of situated cognition, which suggests that learning is tied to real-life activities, contexts, and cultures. This means learning is most effective when it happens in the environment where the skills will be used.

Cognitive apprenticeship in gamification creates immersive learning experiences where users develop skills through practice and feedback. It’s similar to traditional apprenticeships where learners observe, model, and practice behaviors with an expert's guidance. For example, imagine a cooking app that guides users through recipes step-by-step with video tutorials from professional chefs, offering tips and adjustments based on user performance. This can help users build practical skills through repeated practice in authentic contexts.

In the late 1970s, Albert Bandura introduced the concept of social learning theory, which suggests that individuals learn from one another through observation, imitation, and modeling. According to this theory, watching others can significantly influence a person’s behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes.

Gamification leverages social learning theory by using avatars and virtual models to demonstrate desired behaviors within a game environment. Consider a gamified fitness app that uses social learning theory. The app could feature an avatar coach who demonstrates exercises, provides tips, and models proper form. Users can observe the avatar, imitate the exercises, and receive feedback. The ability to repeatedly watch and practice the movements can help users learn effectively.